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<!--l. 10--><p class="noindent" >
</p><!--l. 12--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmr-17x-x-143">A First Course in Linear Algebra</span>
</p><!--l. 16--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">by</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">Robert A.</span><span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">&#x00A0;Beezer</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">Department of Mathematics and Computer Science</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">University of Puget Sound</span>
</p><!--l. 22--><p class="noindent" >Version 2.90
</p>
</div>
<!--l. 10--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmsy-10x-x-120">&#x00A9;</span>&#x00A0;2004 by Robert A. Beezer.<br 
class="newline" /> Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later
version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
license is included in the appendix entitled &#x201C;GNU Free Documentation
License&#x201D;.<br 
class="newline" /> The most recent version of this work can always be found at <a 
href="http://linear.ups.edu" class="url" ><span 
class="cmtt-12">http://linear.ups.edu</span></a>.<br 
class="newline" />
                                                                          

                                                                          
</p><!--l. 265--><p class="indent" >
                                                                          

                                                                          
</p>
   <div class="tableofcontents">
   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li1.xml#x2-1000" id="QQ2-2-1">Front Matter</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li2.xml#x3-2000" id="QQ2-3-2">Author Biography</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li3.xml#x4-3000" id="QQ2-4-3">Edition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li4.xml#x5-4000" id="QQ2-5-4">Publisher</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li5.xml#x6-5000" id="QQ2-6-5">Dedication</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li6.xml#x7-6000" id="QQ2-7-6">Contributors</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li7.xml#x8-7000" id="QQ2-8-7">Definitions</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li8.xml#x9-8000" id="QQ2-9-8">Theorems</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li9.xml#x10-9000" id="QQ2-10-9">Notation</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li10.xml#x11-10000" id="QQ2-11-10">Diagrams</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li11.xml#x12-11000" id="QQ2-12-11">Examples</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li12.xml#x13-12000" id="QQ2-13-12">Preface</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li13.xml#x14-18000" id="QQ2-14-18">Acknowledgements</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li14.xml#x15-19000" id="QQ2-15-19">Part C Core</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li15.xml#x16-20000" id="QQ2-16-20">Chapter SLE Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li16.xml#x17-21000" id="QQ2-17-21">Section WILA What is Linear Algebra?</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li17.xml#x18-27000" id="QQ2-18-27">Section SSLE Solving Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li18.xml#x19-34000" id="QQ2-19-34">Section RREF Reduced Row-Echelon Form</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li19.xml#x20-41000" id="QQ2-20-41">Section TSS Types of Solution Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li20.xml#x21-47000" id="QQ2-21-47">Section HSE Homogeneous Systems of Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li21.xml#x22-53000" id="QQ2-22-53">Section NM Nonsingular Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li22.xml#x23-59000" id="QQ2-23-59">Chapter V Vectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li23.xml#x24-60000" id="QQ2-24-60">Section VO Vector Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li24.xml#x25-66000" id="QQ2-25-66">Section LC Linear Combinations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li25.xml#x26-73000" id="QQ2-26-73">Section SS Spanning Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li26.xml#x27-79000" id="QQ2-27-79">Section LI Linear Independence</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li27.xml#x28-86000" id="QQ2-28-86">Section LDS Linear Dependence and Spans</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li28.xml#x29-92000" id="QQ2-29-92">Section O Orthogonality</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li29.xml#x30-101000" id="QQ2-30-101">Chapter M Matrices</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li30.xml#x31-102000" id="QQ2-31-102">Section MO Matrix Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li31.xml#x32-111000" id="QQ2-32-111">Section MM Matrix Multiplication</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li32.xml#x33-120000" id="QQ2-33-120">Section MISLE Matrix Inverses and Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li33.xml#x34-127000" id="QQ2-34-127">Section MINM Matrix Inverses and Nonsingular Matrices</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li34.xml#x35-133000" id="QQ2-35-133">Section CRS Column and Row Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li35.xml#x36-141000" id="QQ2-36-141">Section FS Four Subsets</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li36.xml#x37-149000" id="QQ2-37-149">Chapter VS Vector Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li37.xml#x38-150000" id="QQ2-38-150">Section VS Vector Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li38.xml#x39-158000" id="QQ2-39-158">Section S Subspaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li39.xml#x40-165000" id="QQ2-40-165">Section LISS Linear Independence and Spanning Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li40.xml#x41-172000" id="QQ2-41-172">Section B Bases</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li41.xml#x42-180000" id="QQ2-42-180">Section D Dimension</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li42.xml#x43-188000" id="QQ2-43-188">Section PD Properties of Dimension</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li43.xml#x44-196000" id="QQ2-44-196">Chapter D Determinants</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li44.xml#x45-197000" id="QQ2-45-197">Section DM Determinant of a Matrix</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li45.xml#x46-204000" id="QQ2-46-204">Section PDM Properties of Determinants of Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li46.xml#x47-211000" id="QQ2-47-211">Chapter E Eigenvalues</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li47.xml#x48-212000" id="QQ2-48-212">Section EE Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li48.xml#x49-221000" id="QQ2-49-221">Section PEE Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li49.xml#x50-227000" id="QQ2-50-227">Section SD Similarity and Diagonalization</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li50.xml#x51-235000" id="QQ2-51-235">Chapter LT Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li51.xml#x52-236000" id="QQ2-52-236">Section LT Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li52.xml#x53-246000" id="QQ2-53-246">Section ILT Injective Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li53.xml#x54-255000" id="QQ2-54-255">Section SLT Surjective Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li54.xml#x55-264000" id="QQ2-55-264">Section IVLT Invertible Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li55.xml#x56-273000" id="QQ2-56-273">Chapter R Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li56.xml#x57-274000" id="QQ2-57-274">Section VR Vector Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li57.xml#x58-281000" id="QQ2-58-281">Section MR Matrix Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li58.xml#x59-288000" id="QQ2-59-288">Section CB Change of Basis</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li59.xml#x60-296000" id="QQ2-60-296">Section OD Orthonormal Diagonalization</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li60.xml#x61-301000" id="QQ2-61-301">Section NLT Nilpotent Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li61.xml#x62-305000" id="QQ2-62-305">Section IS Invariant Subspaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li62.xml#x63-310000" id="QQ2-63-310">Section JCF Jordan Canonical Form</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li63.xml#x64-314000" id="QQ2-64-314">Appendix CN Computation Notes</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li64.xml#x65-315000" id="QQ2-65-315">Section MMA Mathematica</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li65.xml#x66-326000" id="QQ2-66-326">Section TI86 Texas Instruments 86</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li66.xml#x67-331000" id="QQ2-67-331">Section TI83 Texas Instruments 83</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li67.xml#x68-335000" id="QQ2-68-335">Section SAGE SAGE: Open Source Mathematics Software</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li68.xml#x69-344000" id="QQ2-69-344">Appendix P Preliminaries</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li69.xml#x70-345000" id="QQ2-70-345">Section CNO Complex Number Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li70.xml#x71-349000" id="QQ2-71-349">Section SET Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li71.xml#x72-352000" id="QQ2-72-352">Section PT Proof Techniques</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li72.xml#x73-370000" id="QQ2-73-370">Appendix A Archetypes</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li73.xml#x74-371000" id="QQ2-74-371">Archetype A </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li74.xml#x75-373000" id="QQ2-75-373">Archetype B </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li75.xml#x76-375000" id="QQ2-76-375">Archetype C </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li76.xml#x77-377000" id="QQ2-77-377">Archetype D </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li77.xml#x78-379000" id="QQ2-78-379">Archetype E </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li78.xml#x79-381000" id="QQ2-79-381">Archetype F </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li79.xml#x80-383000" id="QQ2-80-383">Archetype G </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li80.xml#x81-385000" id="QQ2-81-385">Archetype H </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li81.xml#x82-387000" id="QQ2-82-387">Archetype I </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li82.xml#x83-389000" id="QQ2-83-389">Archetype J </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li83.xml#x84-391000" id="QQ2-84-391">Archetype K </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li84.xml#x85-393000" id="QQ2-85-393">Archetype L </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li85.xml#x86-395000" id="QQ2-86-395">Archetype M </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li86.xml#x87-397000" id="QQ2-87-397">Archetype N </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li87.xml#x88-399000" id="QQ2-88-399">Archetype O </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li88.xml#x89-401000" id="QQ2-89-401">Archetype P </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li89.xml#x90-403000" id="QQ2-90-403">Archetype Q </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li90.xml#x91-405000" id="QQ2-91-405">Archetype R </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li91.xml#x92-407000" id="QQ2-92-407">Archetype S </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li92.xml#x93-409000" id="QQ2-93-409">Archetype T </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li93.xml#x94-411000" id="QQ2-94-411">Archetype U </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li94.xml#x95-413000" id="QQ2-95-413">Archetype V </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li95.xml#x96-415000" id="QQ2-96-415">Archetype W </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li96.xml#x97-417000" id="QQ2-97-417">Archetype X </a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#x98-419000" id="QQ2-98-419">Appendix GFDL GNU Free Documentation License</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-420">1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-421">2. VERBATIM COPYING</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-422">3. COPYING IN QUANTITY</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-423">4. MODIFICATIONS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-424">5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-425">6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-426">7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-427">8. TRANSLATION</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-428">9. TERMINATION</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-429">10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li97.xml#Q1-98-430">ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li98.xml#x99-420000" id="QQ2-99-431">Part T Topics</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li99.xml#x100-421000" id="QQ2-100-432">Section F Fields</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li100.xml#x101-427000" id="QQ2-101-438">Section T Trace</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li101.xml#x102-430000" id="QQ2-102-441">Section HP Hadamard Product</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li102.xml#x103-433000" id="QQ2-103-444">Section VM Vandermonde Matrix</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li103.xml#x104-434000" id="QQ2-104-445">Section PSM Positive Semi-definite Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li104.xml#x105-437000" id="QQ2-105-448">Chapter MD Matrix Decompositions</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li105.xml#x106-438000" id="QQ2-106-449">Section ROD Rank One Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li106.xml#x107-439000" id="QQ2-107-450">Section TD Triangular Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li107.xml#x108-443000" id="QQ2-108-454">Section SVD Singular Value Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li108.xml#x109-446000" id="QQ2-109-457">Section SR Square Roots</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li109.xml#x110-448000" id="QQ2-110-459">Section POD Polar Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li110.xml#x111-449000" id="QQ2-111-460">Part A Applications</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li111.xml#x112-450000" id="QQ2-112-461">Section CF Curve Fitting</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li112.xml#x113-453000" id="QQ2-113-464">Section SAS Sharing A Secret</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.90li113.xml#x114-454000" id="QQ2-114-465">Index</a></span>
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