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<!--l. 10--><p class="noindent" >
</p><!--l. 12--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmr-17x-x-143">A First Course in Linear Algebra</span>
</p><!--l. 16--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">by</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">Robert A.</span><span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">&#x00A0;Beezer</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">Department of Mathematics and Computer Science</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">University of Puget Sound</span>
</p><!--l. 22--><p class="noindent" >Version 2.12
</p>
</div>
<!--l. 10--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmsy-10x-x-120">&#x00A9;</span>&#x00A0;2004 by Robert A. Beezer.<br 
class="newline" /> Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later
version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
license is included in the appendix entitled &#x201C;GNU Free Documentation
License&#x201D;.<br 
class="newline" /> The most recent version of this work can always be found at <a 
href="http://linear.ups.edu" class="url" ><span 
class="cmtt-12">http://linear.ups.edu</span></a>.<br 
class="newline" />
                                                                          

                                                                          
</p><!--l. 265--><p class="indent" >
                                                                          

                                                                          
</p>
   <div class="tableofcontents">
   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li1.xml#x2-1000" id="QQ2-2-1">Front Matter</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li2.xml#x3-2000" id="QQ2-3-2">Author Biography</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li3.xml#x4-3000" id="QQ2-4-3">Edition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li4.xml#x5-4000" id="QQ2-5-4">Publisher</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li5.xml#x6-5000" id="QQ2-6-5">Dedication</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li6.xml#x7-6000" id="QQ2-7-6">Contributors</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li7.xml#x8-7000" id="QQ2-8-7">Definitions</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li8.xml#x9-8000" id="QQ2-9-8">Theorems</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li9.xml#x10-9000" id="QQ2-10-9">Notation</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li10.xml#x11-10000" id="QQ2-11-10">Diagrams</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li11.xml#x12-11000" id="QQ2-12-11">Examples</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li12.xml#x13-12000" id="QQ2-13-12">Preface</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li13.xml#x14-18000" id="QQ2-14-18">Acknowledgements</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li14.xml#x15-19000" id="QQ2-15-19">Part C Core</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li15.xml#x16-20000" id="QQ2-16-20">Chapter SLE Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li16.xml#x17-21000" id="QQ2-17-21">Section WILA What is Linear Algebra?</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li17.xml#x18-27000" id="QQ2-18-27">Section SSLE Solving Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li18.xml#x19-34000" id="QQ2-19-34">Section RREF Reduced Row-Echelon Form</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li19.xml#x20-41000" id="QQ2-20-41">Section TSS Types of Solution Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li20.xml#x21-47000" id="QQ2-21-47">Section HSE Homogeneous Systems of Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li21.xml#x22-53000" id="QQ2-22-53">Section NM Nonsingular Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li22.xml#x23-60000" id="QQ2-23-60">Chapter V Vectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li23.xml#x24-61000" id="QQ2-24-61">Section VO Vector Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li24.xml#x25-67000" id="QQ2-25-67">Section LC Linear Combinations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li25.xml#x26-74000" id="QQ2-26-74">Section SS Spanning Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li26.xml#x27-80000" id="QQ2-27-80">Section LI Linear Independence</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li27.xml#x28-87000" id="QQ2-28-87">Section LDS Linear Dependence and Spans</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li28.xml#x29-93000" id="QQ2-29-93">Section O Orthogonality</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li29.xml#x30-103000" id="QQ2-30-103">Chapter M Matrices</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li30.xml#x31-104000" id="QQ2-31-104">Section MO Matrix Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li31.xml#x32-113000" id="QQ2-32-113">Section MM Matrix Multiplication</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li32.xml#x33-122000" id="QQ2-33-122">Section MISLE Matrix Inverses and Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li33.xml#x34-129000" id="QQ2-34-129">Section MINM Matrix Inverses and Nonsingular Matrices</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li34.xml#x35-135000" id="QQ2-35-135">Section CRS Column and Row Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li35.xml#x36-143000" id="QQ2-36-143">Section FS Four Subsets</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li36.xml#x37-152000" id="QQ2-37-152">Chapter VS Vector Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li37.xml#x38-153000" id="QQ2-38-153">Section VS Vector Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li38.xml#x39-161000" id="QQ2-39-161">Section S Subspaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li39.xml#x40-168000" id="QQ2-40-168">Section LISS Linear Independence and Spanning Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li40.xml#x41-175000" id="QQ2-41-175">Section B Bases</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li41.xml#x42-183000" id="QQ2-42-183">Section D Dimension</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li42.xml#x43-191000" id="QQ2-43-191">Section PD Properties of Dimension</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li43.xml#x44-200000" id="QQ2-44-200">Chapter D Determinants</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li44.xml#x45-201000" id="QQ2-45-201">Section DM Determinant of a Matrix</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li45.xml#x46-208000" id="QQ2-46-208">Section PDM Properties of Determinants of Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li46.xml#x47-216000" id="QQ2-47-216">Chapter E Eigenvalues</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li47.xml#x48-217000" id="QQ2-48-217">Section EE Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li48.xml#x49-226000" id="QQ2-49-226">Section PEE Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li49.xml#x50-232000" id="QQ2-50-232">Section SD Similarity and Diagonalization</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li50.xml#x51-241000" id="QQ2-51-241">Chapter LT Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li51.xml#x52-242000" id="QQ2-52-242">Section LT Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li52.xml#x53-252000" id="QQ2-53-252">Section ILT Injective Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li53.xml#x54-261000" id="QQ2-54-261">Section SLT Surjective Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li54.xml#x55-270000" id="QQ2-55-270">Section IVLT Invertible Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li55.xml#x56-280000" id="QQ2-56-280">Chapter R Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li56.xml#x57-281000" id="QQ2-57-281">Section VR Vector Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li57.xml#x58-288000" id="QQ2-58-288">Section MR Matrix Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li58.xml#x59-295000" id="QQ2-59-295">Section CB Change of Basis</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li59.xml#x60-303000" id="QQ2-60-303">Section OD Orthonormal Diagonalization</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li60.xml#x61-308000" id="QQ2-61-308">Section NLT Nilpotent Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li61.xml#x62-312000" id="QQ2-62-312">Section IS Invariant Subspaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li62.xml#x63-317000" id="QQ2-63-317">Section JCF Jordan Canonical Form</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li63.xml#x64-322000" id="QQ2-64-322">Appendix CN Computation Notes</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li64.xml#x65-323000" id="QQ2-65-323">Section MMA Mathematica</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li65.xml#x66-334000" id="QQ2-66-334">Section TI86 Texas Instruments 86</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li66.xml#x67-339000" id="QQ2-67-339">Section TI83 Texas Instruments 83</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li67.xml#x68-343000" id="QQ2-68-343">Section SAGE SAGE: Open Source Mathematics Software</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li68.xml#x69-352000" id="QQ2-69-352">Appendix P Preliminaries</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li69.xml#x70-353000" id="QQ2-70-353">Section CNO Complex Number Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li70.xml#x71-357000" id="QQ2-71-357">Section SET Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li71.xml#x72-360000" id="QQ2-72-360">Section PT Proof Techniques</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li72.xml#x73-378000" id="QQ2-73-378">Appendix A Archetypes</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li73.xml#x74-379000" id="QQ2-74-379">Archetype A </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li74.xml#x75-381000" id="QQ2-75-381">Archetype B </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li75.xml#x76-383000" id="QQ2-76-383">Archetype C </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li76.xml#x77-385000" id="QQ2-77-385">Archetype D </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li77.xml#x78-387000" id="QQ2-78-387">Archetype E </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li78.xml#x79-389000" id="QQ2-79-389">Archetype F </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li79.xml#x80-391000" id="QQ2-80-391">Archetype G </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li80.xml#x81-393000" id="QQ2-81-393">Archetype H </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li81.xml#x82-395000" id="QQ2-82-395">Archetype I </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li82.xml#x83-397000" id="QQ2-83-397">Archetype J </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li83.xml#x84-399000" id="QQ2-84-399">Archetype K </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li84.xml#x85-401000" id="QQ2-85-401">Archetype L </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li85.xml#x86-403000" id="QQ2-86-403">Archetype M </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li86.xml#x87-405000" id="QQ2-87-405">Archetype N </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li87.xml#x88-407000" id="QQ2-88-407">Archetype O </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li88.xml#x89-409000" id="QQ2-89-409">Archetype P </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li89.xml#x90-411000" id="QQ2-90-411">Archetype Q </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li90.xml#x91-413000" id="QQ2-91-413">Archetype R </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li91.xml#x92-415000" id="QQ2-92-415">Archetype S </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li92.xml#x93-417000" id="QQ2-93-417">Archetype T </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li93.xml#x94-419000" id="QQ2-94-419">Archetype U </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li94.xml#x95-421000" id="QQ2-95-421">Archetype V </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li95.xml#x96-423000" id="QQ2-96-423">Archetype W </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li96.xml#x97-425000" id="QQ2-97-425">Archetype X </a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#x98-427000" id="QQ2-98-427">Appendix GFDL GNU Free Documentation License</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-428">1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-429">2. VERBATIM COPYING</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-430">3. COPYING IN QUANTITY</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-431">4. MODIFICATIONS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-432">5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-433">6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-434">7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-435">8. TRANSLATION</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-436">9. TERMINATION</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-437">10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li97.xml#Q1-98-438">ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li98.xml#x99-428000" id="QQ2-99-439">Part T Topics</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li99.xml#x100-429000" id="QQ2-100-440">Section F Fields</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li100.xml#x101-435000" id="QQ2-101-446">Section T Trace</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li101.xml#x102-438000" id="QQ2-102-449">Section HP Hadamard Product</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li102.xml#x103-441000" id="QQ2-103-452">Section VM Vandermonde Matrix</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li103.xml#x104-442000" id="QQ2-104-453">Section PSM Positive Semi-definite Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li104.xml#x105-445000" id="QQ2-105-456">Chapter MD Matrix Decompositions</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li105.xml#x106-446000" id="QQ2-106-457">Section ROD Rank One Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li106.xml#x107-447000" id="QQ2-107-458">Section TD Triangular Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li107.xml#x108-451000" id="QQ2-108-462">Section SVD Singular Value Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li108.xml#x109-454000" id="QQ2-109-465">Section SR Square Roots</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li109.xml#x110-456000" id="QQ2-110-467">Section POD Polar Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li110.xml#x111-457000" id="QQ2-111-468">Part A Applications</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li111.xml#x112-458000" id="QQ2-112-469">Section CF Curve Fitting</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li112.xml#x113-461000" id="QQ2-113-472">Section SAS Sharing A Secret</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-2.12li113.xml#x114-462000" id="QQ2-114-473">Index</a></span>
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