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<!--l. 10--><p class="noindent" >
</p><!--l. 12--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmr-17x-x-143">A First Course in Linear Algebra</span>
</p><!--l. 16--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">by</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">Robert A.</span><span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">&#x00A0;Beezer</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">Department of Mathematics and Computer Science</span><br />
<span 
class="cmr-12x-x-120">University of Puget Sound</span>
</p><!--l. 20--><p class="noindent" >Version 1.21
</p>
</div>
<!--l. 10--><p class="noindent" ><span 
class="cmsy-10x-x-120">&#x00A9;</span>&#x00A0;2004 by Robert A. Beezer.<br class="newline" />
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being
&#x201C;Preface&#x201D;, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
license is included in the appendix entitled &#x201C;GNU Free Documentation
License&#x201D;.<br class="newline" />
The most recent version of this work can always be found at <a 
href="http://linear.ups.edu" class="url" ><span 
class="cmtt-12">http://linear.ups.edu</span></a>.<br class="newline" />
                                                                          

                                                                          
</p><!--l. 239--><p class="indent" >
                                                                          

                                                                          
</p>
   <div class="tableofcontents">
   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li1.xml#x2-1000" id="QQ2-2-1">Front Matter</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li2.xml#x3-2000" id="QQ2-3-2">Author Biography</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li3.xml#x4-3000" id="QQ2-4-3">Edition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li4.xml#x5-4000" id="QQ2-5-4">Publisher</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li5.xml#x6-5000" id="QQ2-6-5">Dedication</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li6.xml#x7-6000" id="QQ2-7-6">Contributors</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li7.xml#x8-7000" id="QQ2-8-7">Definitions</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li8.xml#x9-8000" id="QQ2-9-8">Theorems</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li9.xml#x10-9000" id="QQ2-10-9">Notation</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li10.xml#x11-10000" id="QQ2-11-10">Examples</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li11.xml#x12-11000" id="QQ2-12-11">Preface</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li12.xml#x13-17000" id="QQ2-13-17">Acknowledgements</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li13.xml#x14-18000" id="QQ2-14-18">Part C Core</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li14.xml#x15-19000" id="QQ2-15-19">Chapter SLE Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li15.xml#x16-20000" id="QQ2-16-20">Section WILA What is Linear Algebra?</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li16.xml#x17-26000" id="QQ2-17-26">Section SSLE Solving Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li17.xml#x18-33000" id="QQ2-18-33">Section RREF Reduced Row-Echelon Form</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li18.xml#x19-40000" id="QQ2-19-40">Section TSS Types of Solution Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li19.xml#x20-46000" id="QQ2-20-46">Section HSE Homogeneous Systems of Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li20.xml#x21-52000" id="QQ2-21-52">Section NM Nonsingular Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li21.xml#x22-58000" id="QQ2-22-58">Chapter V Vectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li22.xml#x23-59000" id="QQ2-23-59">Section VO Vector Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li23.xml#x24-65000" id="QQ2-24-65">Section LC Linear Combinations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li24.xml#x25-73000" id="QQ2-25-73">Section SS Spanning Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li25.xml#x26-79000" id="QQ2-26-79">Section LI Linear Independence</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li26.xml#x27-86000" id="QQ2-27-86">Section LDS Linear Dependence and Spans</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li27.xml#x28-92000" id="QQ2-28-92">Section O Orthogonality</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li28.xml#x29-100000" id="QQ2-29-100">Chapter M Matrices</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li29.xml#x30-101000" id="QQ2-30-101">Section MO Matrix Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li30.xml#x31-110000" id="QQ2-31-110">Section MM Matrix Multiplication</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li31.xml#x32-119000" id="QQ2-32-119">Section MISLE Matrix Inverses and Systems of Linear Equations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li32.xml#x33-126000" id="QQ2-33-126">Section MINM Matrix Inverses and Nonsingular Matrices</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li33.xml#x34-132000" id="QQ2-34-132">Section CRS Column and Row Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li34.xml#x35-140000" id="QQ2-35-140">Section FS Four Subsets</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li35.xml#x36-148000" id="QQ2-36-148">Chapter VS Vector Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li36.xml#x37-149000" id="QQ2-37-149">Section VS Vector Spaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li37.xml#x38-157000" id="QQ2-38-157">Section S Subspaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li38.xml#x39-164000" id="QQ2-39-164">Section LISS Linear Independence and Spanning Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li39.xml#x40-171000" id="QQ2-40-171">Section B Bases</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li40.xml#x41-179000" id="QQ2-41-179">Section D Dimension</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li41.xml#x42-187000" id="QQ2-42-187">Section PD Properties of Dimension</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li42.xml#x43-195000" id="QQ2-43-195">Chapter D Determinants</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li43.xml#x44-196000" id="QQ2-44-196">Section DM Determinant of a Matrix</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li44.xml#x45-203000" id="QQ2-45-203">Section PDM Properties of Determinants of Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li45.xml#x46-210000" id="QQ2-46-210">Chapter E Eigenvalues</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li46.xml#x47-211000" id="QQ2-47-211">Section EE Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li47.xml#x48-220000" id="QQ2-48-220">Section PEE Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li48.xml#x49-226000" id="QQ2-49-226">Section SD Similarity and Diagonalization</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li49.xml#x50-233000" id="QQ2-50-233">Chapter LT Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li50.xml#x51-234000" id="QQ2-51-234">Section LT Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li51.xml#x52-243000" id="QQ2-52-243">Section ILT Injective Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li52.xml#x53-252000" id="QQ2-53-252">Section SLT Surjective Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li53.xml#x54-261000" id="QQ2-54-261">Section IVLT Invertible Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li54.xml#x55-270000" id="QQ2-55-270">Chapter R Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li55.xml#x56-271000" id="QQ2-56-271">Section VR Vector Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li56.xml#x57-278000" id="QQ2-57-278">Section MR Matrix Representations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li57.xml#x58-285000" id="QQ2-58-285">Section CB Change of Basis</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li58.xml#x59-293000" id="QQ2-59-293">Section OD Orthonormal Diagonalization</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li59.xml#x60-298000" id="QQ2-60-298">Section NLT Nilpotent Linear Transformations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li60.xml#x61-302000" id="QQ2-61-302">Section IS Invariant Subspaces</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li61.xml#x62-306000" id="QQ2-62-306">Section JCF Jordan Canonical Form</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li62.xml#x63-310000" id="QQ2-63-310">Appendix CN Computation Notes</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li63.xml#x64-311000" id="QQ2-64-311">Section MMA Mathematica</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li64.xml#x65-322000" id="QQ2-65-322">Section TI86 Texas Instruments 86</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li65.xml#x66-327000" id="QQ2-66-327">Section TI83 Texas Instruments 83</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li66.xml#x67-331000" id="QQ2-67-331">Appendix P Preliminaries</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li67.xml#x68-332000" id="QQ2-68-332">Section CNO Complex Number Operations</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li68.xml#x69-336000" id="QQ2-69-336">Section SET Sets</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li69.xml#x70-339000" id="QQ2-70-339">Section PT Proof Techniques</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li70.xml#x71-357000" id="QQ2-71-357">Appendix A Archetypes</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li71.xml#x72-358000" id="QQ2-72-358">Archetype A </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li72.xml#x73-360000" id="QQ2-73-360">Archetype B </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li73.xml#x74-362000" id="QQ2-74-362">Archetype C </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li74.xml#x75-364000" id="QQ2-75-364">Archetype D </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li75.xml#x76-366000" id="QQ2-76-366">Archetype E </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li76.xml#x77-368000" id="QQ2-77-368">Archetype F </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li77.xml#x78-370000" id="QQ2-78-370">Archetype G </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li78.xml#x79-372000" id="QQ2-79-372">Archetype H </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li79.xml#x80-374000" id="QQ2-80-374">Archetype I </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li80.xml#x81-376000" id="QQ2-81-376">Archetype J </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li81.xml#x82-378000" id="QQ2-82-378">Archetype K </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li82.xml#x83-380000" id="QQ2-83-380">Archetype L </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li83.xml#x84-382000" id="QQ2-84-382">Archetype M </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li84.xml#x85-384000" id="QQ2-85-384">Archetype N </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li85.xml#x86-386000" id="QQ2-86-386">Archetype O </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li86.xml#x87-388000" id="QQ2-87-388">Archetype P </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li87.xml#x88-390000" id="QQ2-88-390">Archetype Q </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li88.xml#x89-392000" id="QQ2-89-392">Archetype R </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li89.xml#x90-394000" id="QQ2-90-394">Archetype S </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li90.xml#x91-396000" id="QQ2-91-396">Archetype T </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li91.xml#x92-398000" id="QQ2-92-398">Archetype U </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li92.xml#x93-400000" id="QQ2-93-400">Archetype V </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li93.xml#x94-402000" id="QQ2-94-402">Archetype W </a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li94.xml#x95-404000" id="QQ2-95-404">Archetype X </a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#x96-406000" id="QQ2-96-406">Appendix GFDL GNU Free Documentation License</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-407">1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-408">2. VERBATIM COPYING</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-409">3. COPYING IN QUANTITY</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-410">4. MODIFICATIONS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-411">5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-412">6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-413">7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-414">8. TRANSLATION</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-415">9. TERMINATION</a></span>
                                                                          

                                                                          
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-416">10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="sectionToc" > <a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li95.xml#Q1-96-417">ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li96.xml#x97-407000" id="QQ2-97-418">Part T Topics</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li97.xml#x98-408000" id="QQ2-98-419">Section F Fields</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li98.xml#x99-414000" id="QQ2-99-425">Section T Trace</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li99.xml#x100-417000" id="QQ2-100-428">Section HP Hadamard Product</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li100.xml#x101-420000" id="QQ2-101-431">Section VM Vandermonde Matrix</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li101.xml#x102-421000" id="QQ2-102-432">Section PSM Positive Semi-definite Matrices</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li102.xml#x103-424000" id="QQ2-103-435">Chapter MD Matrix Decompositions</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li103.xml#x104-425000" id="QQ2-104-436">Section ROD Rank One Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li104.xml#x105-426000" id="QQ2-105-437">Section TD Triangular Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li105.xml#x106-430000" id="QQ2-106-441">Section SVD Singular Value Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li106.xml#x107-433000" id="QQ2-107-444">Section SR Square Roots</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li107.xml#x108-435000" id="QQ2-108-446">Section POD Polar Decomposition</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likepartToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li108.xml#x109-436000" id="QQ2-109-447">Part A Applications</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li109.xml#x110-437000" id="QQ2-110-448">Section CF Curve Fitting</a></span>
<br />   &#x00A0;<span class="likesectionToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li110.xml#x111-440000" id="QQ2-111-451">Section SAS Sharing A Secret</a></span>
<br />   <span class="likechapterToc" ><a 
href="fcla-xml-1.21li111.xml#x112-441000" id="QQ2-112-452">Index</a></span>
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